Kelly Clark Wine Accessories Online Guide

Microorganism

History
Evolution
More information: Timeline of evolution
unicellular organisms were the first life forms to develop on Earth, about 34 million years. The subsequent evolution was slow, and about 3 million years ago in the Precambrian eon, all organisms are microscopic. Thus, most of the history of life on Earth the only forms of life were microorganisms. Bacteria, algae and fungi have been identified in orange, is 220 million years, demonstrating that the morphology of microorganisms has changed little since the Triassic period.
The Most microorganisms can reproduce rapidly and microbes such as bacteria can also freely exchange genes by conjugation, transformation and transduction between widely divergent species. This horizontal gene transfer, together with a high mutation rate and many other means of genetic allows microorganisms to swiftly evolve (via natural selection) to survive in new environments and respond to environmental stresses. This rapid evolution is important in medicine because it has led to the recent creation of "super-bugs" pathogenic bacteria that are resistant to modern antibiotics.
Pre-Microbiology
The possibility that microorganisms are discussed for many centuries before their actual discovery in the 17 century. The first known idea to indicate the possible spread of diseases never seen bodies was that of the Roman scholar Varro Terentius Marco in the first century BC book called De Agricultura that warns against the location of a farm near the marshes:
and because there are bred certain minute creatures which can not be seen through the eyes, floating in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and not cause serious illness.
In the Canon of Medicine (1020), Ab ibn Al Sn (Avicenna) stated that bodily secretion is contaminated due to lack foreign earthly bodies before being infected. Also, the hypothesis that tuberculosis and other diseases can be contagious, ie were infectious diseases, and used quarantine to limit its spread.
When the Black Death plague plague came to Andalusia in Spain, in the century 14, Ibn Khatim wrote that infectious diseases were caused by contagious "minute bodies" which enter the human body. Later, in 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that can transmit the infection through direct contact or indirect contact or even without long-distance contact.
All these statements at the beginning of the existence of microorganisms were speculative and not based on facts or science. Microorganisms were neither proven observed, and correct and accurately described until the 17th century. The reason is that all these early studies lacked the microscope.
History of discovery of microorganisms "
See also: History of biology
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the first microbiologist and the first to observe microorganisms under a microscope.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe microorganisms using a microscope of his own design, and became one of the most important contributions to biology. Robert Hooke was the first to use a microscope to observe living things, his book Micrographia 1665 contained descriptions of plant cells.
Before Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms in 1675, had been a mystery why grapes could be turned into wine, milk into cheese, or why food spoil. Leeuwenhoek did not make the connection between these processes and microorganisms, but the use of a microscope, has shown that there were ways of life that were not visible to the naked view. Leeuwenhoek's discovery, along with subsequent observations of Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur, ended the long-held belief that life appeared spontaneously from nonliving substances in the process of deterioration.
Lazzaro Spallanzani found that the boiling broth sterilize it and kill any organism in it. It also found that new organisms could only be established in a stock if the stock is exposed to air. Louis Pasteur, Spallanzani expanded results by putting evidence boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles passing through the medium, and in vessels without filter at all, with air being admitted through a curved pipe would not allow dust particles that come into contact with the broth. By boiling the broth beforehand, Pasteur ensure that no microorganisms survived in the broths at the beginning of the experiment. Nothing grew in the broths in the course of the experiment of Pasteur. This meant that living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores in the dust, rather than spontaneously generated in the broth. Thus, Pasteur dealt the death blow to the theory of spontaneous generation and supported germ theory.
In 1767, Dr. JZ Holwell reported that Indian doctors at the time knew that microbes caused illness, "I lay down as a principle, that the immediate cause of smallpox exists in the deadliest of all human and animal forms, that mediation (or second) case as, which makes up the first, and throws him into a state of fermentation, is a multitude of invisible animalcules floating in the atmosphere, they are the result of all epidemic diseases, but especially of smallpox. "
In 1876, Robert Koch established that microbes can cause disease. Found the blood of cattle that were infected with Anthrax has always had a large number of Bacillus anthracis. Koch found that Anthrax could transmit from one animal to another, taking a small blood sample from the infected animal and injecting it into a healthy, and this made the healthy animal sick. He also discovered that the bacteria could grow a nutrient broth, then injected into a healthy animal and cause disease. From these experiments, devised the criteria for establishing a causal link between a microbe and a disease and these are now known as Koch's postulates. Despite these assumptions can not be applied in all cases, they do hold historical importance development of scientific thought and are still used today.
Classification and structure
Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry the three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, green and archaea. The relative positions of some phyla are shown around the tree.
Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere in the taxonomic organization of life on the planet. most bacteria and archaea are almost always microscopic, while also a number of microscopic eukaryotes, including protists, some fungi and some animals and plants. Viruses are generally considered non-life and therefore are not microbes, although the field of microbiology also encompasses the study of viruses.
Prokaryotes
Main article: Prokaryote
Prokaryotes are organisms that lack a cell nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Are almost always unicellular, although some species such as myxobacteria aggregate Complex structures may, as part of their life cycle.
It consists of two domains, bacteria and archaea, prokaryotes are the most abundant and diverse group of organisms on Earth and live in almost all environments where some liquid water is available and the temperature is below 140 C. It is found in sea water, soil, air, animal gastrointestinal tract, hot springs and even well below the earth's crust in rocks. Virtually all areas that have not been specially sterilized covered by prokaryotes. The number of prokaryotes on Earth is estimated at around five million trillion trillion, or 5 1030, representing at least half the biomass on Earth.
Bacteria
Main article: Bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus bacteria magnified about 10,000 x
Bacteria are virtually invisible to the naked eye, with some very rare exceptions, such as namibiensis Thiomargarita. Lack membrane-bound organelles, and can work and play individual cells, but often added in multicellular colonies. Its genome is usually a single loop of DNA, but can also hold small pieces of DNA called plasmids. These plasmids can be transferred between cells through bacterial conjugation. The bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to their cells. They reproduce by binary fission or by budding at times, but not to undergo sexual reproduction. Some species form extraordinarily resilient spores, but for bacteria is a survival mechanism, not reproduction. Under optimal conditions bacteria can grow very quickly and can double as before every 10 minutes.
Archaea
Main article: Archaea
Archaea are also single-celled organisms that lack nuclei. In the past, differences between bacteria and archaea were not recognized and archaea were classified with bacteria as part of the kingdom Monera. However, in 1990, the microbiologist Carl Woese proposed the three-domain system that divided the living bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. Archaea differ from bacteria, both in genetics and biochemistry. For example, while cell membranes of bacteria are made of phosphoglycerides with ester bonds, arching membranes are made of ether lipids.
Archaea were originally described in environments extremes such as hot springs, but have since been found in all habitat types. Scientists are only now beginning to realize the common Archaea are in the environment, crenarchaeota being the most common form of life at sea, dominating ecosystems below 150 m depth. These agencies also are common in soil and play a vital role in ammonia oxidation.
Eukaryotes
Ostreococcus is the smallest known free living eukaryote with a size average 0.8 m
Main article: Eukaryote
Most living things that are visible to the naked eye in their adult form are eukaryotes, including humans. No But a large number of eukaryotes are also microorganisms. Unlike bacteria and archaea, eukaryotes contain organelles such as the nucleus of the cell, Golgi apparatus and mitochondria in cells. The nucleus is an organelle where the DNA that makes up the genome of a cell. DNA complex is organized into chromosomes. Mitochondria are organelles vital in metabolism as they are the site of the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Its evolution from symbiotic bacteria and maintain a remnant genome. Like bacteria, plant cells have cell walls and contain organelles such as chloroplasts, the organelles in addition in eukaryotes. Chloroplasts produce energy from light by photosynthesis, and were also originally symbiotic bacteria.
unicellular eukaryotes are eukaryotes, which consist of a single cell throughout their life cycle. This qualification is important because most multicellular eukaryotes consist a single cell called a zygote at the beginning of its life cycle. microbial eukaryotes may be haploid or diploid, and some agencies have multiple nuclei (see coenocyte). However, not all microorganisms are unicellular as some microscopic eukaryotes are made of multiple cells.
Protists
Main article: Protista
For groups of eukaryotes, protists are most commonly unicellular and microscopic. This is a very diverse group of organisms that are not easy to classify. Several algae species are multicellular protists, and clay molds have unique life cycles that involve switching between unicellular, colonial and multicellular. The number species of protozoa is uncertain, as may have identified only a small proportion of the diversity in this group of organisms.
A microscopic mite Lorryia formosa.
Animals
Main article: Micro-animals
Above all multicellular animals, but some are too small to be seen by the naked eye. arthropods are microscopic dust mites and dust mites. Microscopic crustaceans include copepods and cladocerans, while nematodes are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Another common group of microscopic animals are the rotifers, which are filter feeders that are usually found in freshwater. Micro-animals reproduce both sexually and asexually and may reach new habitats as eggs that survive harsh environments to kill the adult animal. No However, some simple animals such as rotifers and nematodes, can dry out completely and remain dormant for long periods of time.
Fungi
Article Home: Fungus
The fungi have several unicellular species, such as baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe). Some fungi, including pathogenic yeast Candida albicans, can undergo phenotypic change and grow as single cells in some settings, and other filamentous hyphae. Fungi reproduce both asexually, by binary fission or budding, as well as producing spores, called conidia when produced asexually, or when they occur sexual basidiospores.
Plants
Main article: Plant
Green algae are a large group of photosynthetic eukaryotes that include many microscopic organisms. Although some green algae are classified as protists, others are classified as Charophyta Embryophyta plants, which are the best known group of land plants. Algae can grow as single cells or in long chains of cells. Green algae are unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms. In Charales, which are more closely related algae with higher plants, cells differentiate in several different tissues in the body. There are about 6000 species of green algae.
Habitats and ecology
Microorganisms are found in almost all habitats found in nature. Even in hostile environments, such as the poles, deserts, geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Some types of microorganisms have adapted to the conditions extreme and sustained colonies, these organisms are known as extremophiles. Extremophiles have been isolated from the rocks up to 7 kilometers below the surface of the Earth It has been suggested that below the amount of living organisms on Earth surface can be comparable with the amount of life at or above the surface. Extremophiles have been known survive for a long time in a vacuum, and can be highly resistant to radiation, which even allow them to survive in space. Many types of microorganisms have intimate symbiotic relationship with other larger organisms, some of which are mutually beneficial (mutualism), while others may be harmful to the body host (parasitism). If microorganisms can cause disease in a host are known as pathogens.
Extremophiles
Main article: extremophiles
Extremophiles are microorganisms that have adapted so they can survive and even thrive in conditions normally fatal to most lifestyles. For example, some species have been found in extreme environments as follows:
Temperature: up to 130 C (266 F), as low as 17 C (1.4 F)
Acidity / Alkalinity: pH less than 0, up to pH 11.5
Salinity: to saturation
Pressure: up to 1000-2000 atm to 0 atm (eg vacuum of space)
Radiation: up 5kGy
Extremophiles are significant in several ways. They extend terrestrial life into much of the Earth's hydrosphere, crust and the atmosphere, their specific mechanisms of evolutionary adaptation to extreme environment can be exploited in biotechnology, and their very existence in such extreme conditions increases the possibilities of extraterrestrial life.
Soil microbes
The nitrogen cycle in soil depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. One way can occur is at the root nodules of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the genus Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium and Azorhizobium.
Symbiotic microbes
symbiotic microbes such as fungi and algae form an association of lichen. Some fungi form a symbiotic relationship with trees mycorhizzal increase the supply of nutrients to the tree.
Importance
Microorganisms are essential to humans and the environment, and participating in Earth cycles elements such as carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle, as well as fulfilling other vital functions in virtually all ecosystems, such as recycling remains of other dead organisms and waste products through decomposition. Microbes also have an important place in most agencies higher order multicellular as symbionts. Many blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on an improper balance of microbes.
Use in food
Main article: Fermentation (food)
Microorganisms are used in brewing, wine, bakery, pickling and other food-making.
They also are used to control the fermentation process in the production of cultured dairy products like yogurt and cheese. The cultures also provide flavor and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.
Used in water treatment
Main article: Sewage treatment
Specially-cultured microbes are used in the biological treatment of sewage and industrial waste effluents, a process known as bioaugmentation.
The use of energy
Main articles: fuel from algae, cellulosic ethanol, and ethanol fermentation
The microbes used in fermentation to produce ethanol and biogas reactors produce methane. Scientists are investigating the use of algae to produce liquid fuels and bacteria to convert various types of agricultural and urban waste usable fuels.
The use of science
Microbes are also essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology. The yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) are important model organisms in science because they are simple eukaryotes that can be grown rapidly in large quantities and handled with ease. They are particularly valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microbes can be exploited for uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering using microbes for living cells fuel, and as a solution to pollution.
The use in war
Main article: Biological warfare
In the Middle Ages, the bodies sick were thrown over the castle sieges with catapults or siege engines. People near the bodies were exposed to the deadly pathogen and it was likely that speech that other pathogens.
Importance in human health
Human digestion
More information: bacterial flora flora # Human Rights and Health human
Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other larger organisms. For example, bacteria that live inside the human digestive system contribute to gut immunity, synthesise vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex indigestible carbohydrates.
Diseases and Immunology
Main article: pathogenic microbes
Microorganisms are the cause of many infectious diseases. The agencies involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such as plague, tuberculosis and Anthrax, protozoa, causing diseases such as malaria, sleeping sickness and toxoplasmosis, and fungal diseases that cause such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, not usually classified as living organisms and therefore are not microorganisms in the strict definition. Since 2007, no clear examples of archaeal pathogens are known, although the relationship is proposed between the presence of some methanogens and human periodontal disease.
Importance in the ecology
More information: Decomposition
The microbes are critical to decomposition processes necessary for the nitrogen cycle and other items back to the natural world.
Hygiene
Main article: Hygiene
Hygiene is the prevention of infection or food spoiling by eliminating microorganisms from the environment. As microorganisms, especially bacteria, are almost everywhere, this means in most cases the reduction of harmful microorganisms to acceptable levels. However, in some cases require that an object or substance completely sterile, ie devoid of all living entities and viruses. A good example This is a hypodermic needle.
Microorganisms in food preparation are reduced by preservation methods (eg, the addition of vinegar) cleaning utensils used in the preparation, storage or short periods of cool temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, the two methods are common irradiation and the use of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure cooker.
There are several methods to investigate the level of hygiene in a food sample, potable water, equipment etc. Water samples can be filtered through a fine filter. This filter is placed in a nutrient medium. The microorganisms in the filter then grow to form a visible colony. can detect harmful microorganisms in food by placing a sample in a nutrient broth designed to enrich organizations that question. Various methods such as selective media or PCR, can be used for detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces such as pots, you can try to play with a solid piece of nutrient medium and then allowing the microorganisms that grow in it.
There are no conditions under which all organisms grow, and therefore often Several different methods are needed. For example, a food sample can be analyzed in three different media nutrients designed to indicate the presence of "total" of bacteria (conditions where many, but not all, bacteria), molds (conditions under which inhibits the growth of bacteria such as antibiotics) and bacteria coliform (this indicates sewage contamination).
See also
Biological warfare
Biology
Culture collection
Microbial intelligence
Nanobacterium
Petri dish
Prokaryotic
Soil pollution
Staining
Virus
Bacteria
Protozoa
Fungi
References
^ Rybicki EP (1990). "The classification of organisms on the edge of life, or problems with the system of the virus." S Aft J Sci 86: 1826. ISSN 0038-2353.
^ Lwoff A (1957). "The concept of virus" J. Gen Microbiol 17 (2 ):.... 23,953 PMID 13481308.
^ Max Planck Research Society Press Retrieved on May 21, 2009
^ BC Christner, CE Morris, CM Foreman, Cai R, Sands DC (2008). "The ubiquity of biological nucleators ice in the snow. "Science 319 (5867): 1214. doi: 10.1126/science.1149757. PMID 18309078.
^ 2002 mortality data have agreed to January 20, 2007
^ J (2006) Schopf. "Fossil evidence of life archaic." Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361 (1470): 86,985. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2006.1834. PMID 16754604. PMC 1578735. http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/g38537726r273422/fulltext.pdf.
^ Altermann W, Kazmierczak J (2003). "Archean microfossils: a reappraisal of early life on Earth "Res Microbiol 154 (9): 6117 doi ..:. 10.1016/j.resmic.2003.08.006 PMID 14596897.
^ T Cavalier-Smith (2006). "Evolution Cell and Earth history: stasis and revolution "Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 361 (1470): .. 9691006 doi:. 10.1098/rstb.2006.1842 PMID PMC http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac 16754610 1578732 ... uk/content/0164755512w92302/fulltext.pdf.
^ Schopf J (1994). "The rates varied, different destinations: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic. "Proceedings Natl Acad Sci USA 91 (15): 673,542. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91.15.6735. PMID 8041691.
Stanley ^ S (May 1973). "An ecological theory for the sudden origin of multicellular life in the Late Precambrian." Proceedings Natl Acad USA Sci 70 (5): 14869. doi: 10.1073/pnas.70.5.1486. PMID 16592084.
^ DeLong E, Pace N (2001). "Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea." Syst Biol 50 (4): 4708. doi: 10.1080/106351501750435040. PMID 12116647.
^ Schmidt A, Ragazzi E, Coppellotti O, G Roghi (2006). "A microworld in Triassic amber." Nature 444 (7121): 835. doi: 10.1038/444835a. PMID 17167469.
^ Wolska K (2003). "Horizontal DNA transfer between bacteria in the environment." Acta Microbiol Pol 52 (3): 23,343. PMID 14743976.
^ Enright M, Robinson D, Randle G, Feil E, Grundmann H, Spratt B (May 2002). "The evolutionary history of Staphylococcus aureus resistant to methicillin (MRSA). "Proceedings Natl Acad Sci USA 99 (11): 768,792. doi: 10.1073/pnas.122108599. PMID 12032344. PMC 124322. http://www.pnas.org/cgi / pmidlookup? view = long & pmid = 12032344.
^ Varro of Agriculture 1, xii Loeb
^ ab Syed, Ibrahim B. (2002). "Islamic Medicine: 1000 years before his time." Association Journal Islamic Medical 2: 29.
^ Tschanz, W. David. "Arab Roots of European medicine." Heart Views 4 (2).
^ Payne, AS Cleere Observer: A Biography of Antoni Van Leeuwenhoek, p. 13, Macmillan, 1970
^ A Leeuwenhoek (1753). "Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, in relation to the worms in sheep liver, mosquitoes, and animalcular in the feces of frogs. "Philosophical Transactions (16831775) 22: 50,918. doi: 10.1098/rstl.1700.0013. http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/link.asp?id=4j53731651310230. Retrieved on November 30, 2006.
^ Van Leeuwenhoek A (1753). "Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, FRS on green weeds that grow in water, and some have found animalcular on them. "Philosophical Transactions (16831775) 23: 130411. Doi: 10.1098/rstl.1702.0042. http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/link.asp?id=fl73121jk4150280. Retrieved on November 30, 2006.
^ Holwell, John Zephaniah (1767). An account of the form of inoculation of smallpox in the East Indies. London. OCLC 181708667.
^ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905 Nobelprize.org Accessed November 22, 2006.
S ^ O'Brien, Goedert J (1996). "HIV causes AIDS: Koch's postulates fulfilled." Curr Opin Immunol 8 (5): 61,318. doi: 10.1016/S0952-7915 (96) 80075-6. PMID 8902385.
^ Ciccarelli FD, Doerksen T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P (2006). "Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life." Science 311 (5765): 12,837. doi: 10.1126/science.1123061. PMID 16513982.
ab ^ t gold (1992). "The deep biosphere, hot." Proc. Natl. Acad. Science. U.S. 89 (13): 60459. doi: 10.1073/pnas.89.13.6045. PMID 1631089.
^ Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W (1998). "Prokaryotes: the majority are not." Proceedings Natl Acad USA Sci 95 (12): 657883. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.12.6578. PMID 9618454.
^ Schulz H, Jorgensen B (2001). "Bacteria great." Microbiol Annually Rev 55: 10537. doi: 10.1146/annurev.micro.55.1.105. PMID 11544351.
^ Shapiro JA (1998). "Thinking about bacterial populations as multicellular organisms." Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 52: 81104. doi: 10.1146/annurev.micro.52.1.81. PMID 9891794. http://www.sci.uidaho.edu/newton/math501/Sp05/Shapiro.pdf.
^ Eagon R (1962). "Pseudomonas natriegens, a marine bacterium with a generation time of less than 10 minutes, "J Bacteriol 83: 7367 .. PMID 13888946.
^ Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M (1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria and Eucarya "Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87 (12). 45,769 doi: .. 10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 PMID 2112744.
^ De Rosa M, Gambacorta A Gliozzi A (March 1, 1986). "Structure, biosynthesis and physicochemical properties of archaebacterial lipids." Microbiol. Rev. 50 (1): 7080. PMID 3083222. PMC 373054. http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3083222.
^ Robertson C, J Harris, Lance NJ, Pace (2005). "The phylogenetic diversity of the environment and ecology of Archaea." Curr Opin Microbiol 8 (6): 63,842. doi: 10.1016/j.mib.2005.10.003. PMID 16236543.
^ MB Karner, EF DeLong, DM Karl (2001). "Domain Archaea in the mesopelagic zone of the Pacific Ocean." Nature 409 (6819): 50,710. doi: 10.1038/35054051. PMID 11206545.
^ JS Sinninghe Damst, WI Rijpstra, FG Hopmans EC, Prahl, SG Wakeham, S Schouten (June 2002). "The distribution of membrane lipids of planktonic Crenarchaeota ... In the Arabian Sea "Appl Environ Microbiol 68 (6):. 29973002 doi:. 10.1128/AEM.68.6.2997-3002.2002 PMC PMID 12039760 123,986 http://aem.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup ... ? view = long PMID = 12039760.
^ Leininger S, Urich T, Schloter M, et al. (2006). "Archaea predominate among ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes in soils." Nature 442 (7104): 8069. doi: 10.1038/nature04983. PMID 16915287.
^ Eukaryota: More on Morphology. (Accessed October 10, 2006)
ab ^ Dyall S, M Brown, P. Johnson (2004). "Ancient invasions: from endosymbionts to organelles. Science 304 (5668): 2537. doi: 10.1126/science.1094884. PMID 15073369.
^ Cavalier-Smith T (December 1, 1993). "Kingdom protozoa and its 18 phyla. Microbiol. Rev. 57 (4): 95,394. PMID 8302218. PMC 372943. http://mmbr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8302218.
^ Corliss JO (1992). "Should there be a separate code of nomenclature of protists" BioSystems 28 (1-3): 114. doi:. 10.1016/0303-2647 (92) 90 003-H, PMID 1292654 ..
^ Devreotes P (1989). "Dictyostelium discoideum: a model system for cell-cell interactions in development Science 245 (4922):. 10,548 doi: .. 10.1126/science.2672337 PMID 2672337.
Moreira Slapeta ^ J, D, López-García P (2005). "The extent of protist diversity: ideas molecular ecology of freshwater eukaryotes. "Proc. Biol Science. 272 (1576): 207,381. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3195. PMID 16191619. PMC 1559898. http://journals.royalsociety.org/openurl. asp? genre = article & id = doi: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3195.
^ Moreira D, López-García P (2002). "The molecular ecology of microbial eukaryotes reveals a hidden world." Trends Microbiol. 10 (1): 318. doi: 10.1016/S0966-842X (01) 02257-0. PMID 11755083.
^ At least one-celled animal in its adult form: see Myxozoa.
^ Lapinski J, Tunnacliffe A (2003). "Anhydrobiosis without trehalose in bdelloid rotifers. "FEBS Lett. 553 (3): 38,790. doi: 10.1016/S0014-5793 (03) 01062-7. PMID 14572656.
^ Kumamoto CA, Vinces MD (2005). "The Contributions of hyphae and hypha-genes co-regulated Candida albicans virulence "Cell Microbiol 7 (11 ):... 154,654 doi:. 10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00616.x PMID 16207242 ..
^ Thomas, David C. (2002). Seaweed. London: Natural History Museum. ISBN 0-565-09175-1.
^ U Szewzyk, Szewzyk R, T Stenstrm (1994). "Bacteria thermophilic anaerobe isolated from a deep borehole in granite. In "Sweden Proceedings Natl Acad Sci USA 91 (5): 18,103 doi:. 10.1073/pnas.91.5.1810 PMID 11607462 ..
^ G Horneck (1981). "The survival of microorganisms in space: a. Review" Adv Space Res 1 (14): 3948 doi:. 10.1016/0273-1177 (81) 90241-6 PMID 11541716 ..
^ Strain 121, a hyperthermophilic archaea, have been shown to reproduce at 121 C (250 F), and survive to 130 C (266 F).
^ Some psychrophilic bacteria can grow at 17 C (1.4 F), and can survive near absolute zero.
^ Picrophilus can grow at a pH of -0.06.
^ The alkaliphilic Bacillus bacteria can alcalophilus grow up to pH 11.5.
^ Dyall-Smith, Mike, haloarchaea University of Melbourne. See also haloarchaea.
^ Bacteria Halomonas Salaria piezophilic requires a pressure of 1,000 atmospheres; nanobes, a body speculative reports have been found in the earth's crust at 2,000 atm.
^ See Deinococcus radiodurans
^ Cavicchioli R (2002). Extremophiles and the search for extraterrestrials. Life "Astrobiology 2 (3): 28,192 doi:. 10.1089/153110702762027862 PMID 12530238 ..
^ Barea J, Pozo M, R Azcn, Azcn-Aguilar C (2005). "Microbial co-operation. The" rhizosphere J Exp Bot 56 (417): 176,178 doi:. 10.1093/jxb/eri197 PMID 15911555 ..
^ Gillen, Alan L. (2007). The genesis of germs: The origin of diseases and pests Coming. Publishing Group New Leaf. p. 10. ISBN 0-890-51493-3.
^ "Dairy Microbiology". University of Guelph. http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu/micro.html. Retrieved on 10/09/2006.
^ Gray NF (2004). Biology of Wastewater Treatment. Imperial College Press. p. 1164. ISBN 1-860-94332-2.
^ Kitani, and Carl W. Osumu Hall (1989). Manual biomass. Taylor & Francis U.S.. p. 256. ISBN 2-881-24269-3.
^ Pimentel, David (2007). Food, Energy, and Society. CRC Press. p. 289. ISBN 1-420-04667-5.
^ Tickell, Joshua and others. (2000). From the fryer to the fuel tank: the complete guide to using vegetable oil as alternative fuel. America of biodiesel. p. 53. ISBN 0-970-72270-2.
^ Inslee, Jay et al. (2008). Apollo's Fire: Igniting America's economy to clean energy. Island Press. p. 157. ISBN 1-597-26175-0.
Castrillo AC ^ Oliver, SG (2004). "Yeast as a touchstone in post-genomic research: Strategies for comprehensive analysis functional genomics "J. Biochem Mol Biol 37 (1 ):..... 93,106 http://www.jbmb.or.kr/fulltext/jbmb/view.php?vol=37&page=93 PMID 14761307 ..
^ B. Suter, Auerbach D, Stagljar I (2006). "Functional genomics and yeast-based proteomics technologies: the first 15 years and beyond." Biotechniques 40 (5): 62,544. doi: 10.2144/000112151. PMID 16708762.
^ P Sunnerhagen (2002). "Prospects for functional genomics in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Curr. Genet. 42 (2): 7384. doi: 10.1007/s00294-002-0335-6. PMID 12478386.
^ Soni, SK (2007). Microbes: A Source of Energy for the 21st Century. New India publication. ISBN 8-189-42214-6.
^ Moses, Vivian et al. (1999). Biotechnology: The science and business. CRC Press. p. 563. ISBN 9-057-02407-1.
Langford ^, Roland E. (2004). Introduction to weapons of mass destruction: radiological, chemical and biological weapons. Wiley-IEEE. p. 140. ISBN 0-471-46560-7.
^ A O'Hara Shanahan F (2006). "The intestinal flora as a forgotten organ" EMBO Rep 7 (7):. 68,893 doi: .. PMID 16819463 10.1038/sj.embor.7400731.
Eckburg P ^, P Lepp, Relman D (2003). "Archaea and their potential role in human disease," Infect Immun 71 (2):. 5916 doi:. 10.1128/IAI.71.2.591-596.2003 PMID 12540534 ..
^ Lepp P, Brinig M, C Ouverney, Palm K, Armitage G, Relman D (2004). "Methanogenic Archaea and human periodontal disease." Proceedings Natl Acad USA Sci 101 (16): 617,681. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0308766101. PMID 15067114.
External links
Our Microbial Planet A free poster of the National Academy of Sciences on the positive role microbes.
"The Uncharted Microbial World: Microbes and their activities on the environment" Report of the American Academy of Microbiology
Know Microbial planet: The New Science of Metagenomics a 20-page educational booklet provides a basic overview of metagenomics and our microbial planet.
Eukaryotic Tree of Life
Microbe Genome News Network News
Patents Microbes Microbes patents list
Medical Microbiology Online Textbook
Through the microscope: A look at all the little things microbiology textbook on-line by Timothy Paustian and Gary Roberts, University of Wisconsin-Madison
Bacteria online MicrobeID.com identification keys and probabilistic identification databases
EV
Elements of Nature
Universe
Space Time Energy matters
Earth
Earth Sciences Geology History of the Earth's geological history Earth's future Earth structure Plate tectonics Earth
Weather
Earth's climate atmosphere
Environment
Ecology Desert Ecosystem
Life
Hierarchy of life origin of life on Earth Life eukaryotic (plants / Flora, Fauna / fauna, fungi, Protista) prokaryotes (Archaea, Bacteria) Virus of the evolutionary history of life biology
Category Portal
Categories: Microorganisms | MicrobiologyHidden Categories: containing Greek language text | Articles containing Ancient Greek text About the Author

I am a professional writer from China Manufacturers, which contains a great deal of information about $keyword_li, welcome to visit!

.
Hi wine lovers, welcome to our site. Check out the Wine Supplies Epping products below. You"re love it!
.